Income-Based Differences in Perceptions of Gender Inequality in Kazakhstan: Evidence from Survey Data
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47703/ejgs.v3i1.111Keywords:
Gender Inequality, Inequality, Women, Equality of Opportunity, Income Stratification, Labour Market, Public AttitudeAbstract
Gender inequality remains a persistent challenge in transition economies, where structural, institutional, and socio-cultural factors interact to shape both objective outcomes and subjective perceptions. This study examines how income levels influence perceptions of gender inequality in Kazakhstan, focusing on whether individuals believe that men have more opportunities, women have more opportunities, or that equal rights and opportunities exist. The empirical analysis is based on survey data structured as cross-tabulations of income groups and response categories. The methodological approach combines descriptive statistics, Pearson’s chi-square test, and multinomial logistic regression modelling. The results confirm a statistically significant relationship between income level and gender inequality perceptions, indicating that socio-economic status plays a crucial role in shaping attitudes toward gender opportunities. Descriptive findings reveal that the dominant perception across the sample is that equal rights and opportunities exist; however, substantial variation emerges across income groups. The econometric analysis identifies a non-linear pattern. Middle-income respondents are more likely to support gender equality, while both lower-income and higher-income groups are more likely to perceive a male advantage. Predicted probability estimates further confirm this U-shaped relationship, suggesting that economic position influences not only material conditions but also interpretations of fairness and opportunity. The study contributes to the literature by highlighting the importance of perception-based measures of inequality and demonstrating the role of income stratification in shaping gender-related attitudes. The findings have important policy implications, emphasising the need for targeted and differentiated approaches to gender equality that consider socio-economic heterogeneity across population groups.
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